Written by Michael, Michael Ntia
ABSTRACT
This
paper examines poverty from the standpoint of a social phenomenon. Evidence is
submitted that poverty is one of the social problems that has plagued society
more than anything else. After a brief discussion of the conceptual definitions,
this paper presents a framework for thinking about the causes of poverty as
well as the negative impact of poverty. We then inquire into possible solutions
to grapple with the problem of poverty.
INTRODUCTION
Poverty is the oldest and the most
resistant virus that brings about a devastating disease in the third world or
developing countries (Tazoacha, 2001). Its rate of killing cannot be compared
to any disease from the genesis of mankind. It is worse than malaria and
HIV/AIDS which are claimed to be the highest killer diseases, and even worse
than EBOLA.
Despite the renewed commitment over
the past 15 years and more to poverty reduction as the core objective of
international development discourses and policies, progress to this end remains
disappointing. This is particularly evident in the extent to which the world is
off track to achieve most of the Millennium Development Goals, globally and in
most regions and countries (UNDP, 2003).
This inadequate progress raises
important questions about the policies and strategies that have been adopted to
achieve poverty reduction, as well as about key international issues including
aid, debt and trade.
Africa has the richest natural
resources and yet it is poor and stagnant in growth and development. In other
words, in spite of all the wealthy resources including human and material in
its possession, Africa is the world’s poorest continent.
THE CONCEPT AND
DEFINITION OF POVERTY
There are many definitions of
poverty, according to how it is viewed. Encyclopedia Encarta, defines poverty
as the condition of having insufficient resources or income. In its most
extreme form, poverty is a lack of basic human needs to sustain as useful and
working efficiency such as adequate and nutritious food, clothing, and housing,
clean water and health services.
According to the United Nations
Human Development Report, (1998), poverty is defined as a complex phenomenon
that generally refers to inadequacy of resources and deprivation of choices
that would enable people to enjoy decent living conditions. Yunus (1994) on the
other hand defines it as the denial of human rights relating to the fulfillment
of basic human needs.
CAUSES OF POVERTY
The reasons for poverty are not clear. Some people
believe that poverty results from a lack of adequate resources on a global
level—resources such as land, food, and building materials—that are necessary
for the well-being or survival of the world’s people. Others see poverty as an
effect of the uneven distribution of resources around the world on an
international or even regional scale. This second line of reasoning helps
explain why many people have much more than they need to live in comfort, while
many others do not have enough resources to live.
Poverty has many causes, some of them very basic. Some
experts suggest, for instance, that the world has too many people, too few jobs,
and not enough food. But such basic causes are quite intractable and not easily
eradicated. In most cases, the causes and effects of poverty interact, so that
what makes people poor also creates conditions that keep them poor. Primary
factors that may lead to poverty include (1) overpopulation, (2) the unequal
distribution of resources in the world economy, (3) inability to meet high
standards of living and costs of living, (4) inadequate education and
employment opportunities, (5) environmental degradation, (6) certain economic
and demographic trends, and (7) welfare incentives.
OVERPOPULATION
Overpopulation, the situation of having large numbers
of people with too few resources and too little space, is closely associated
with poverty. It can result from high population density (the ratio of people
to land area, usually expressed as numbers of persons per square kilometer or
square mile) or from low amounts of resources, or from both. Excessively high
population densities put stress on available resources. Only a certain number
of people can be supported on a given area of land, and that number depends on
how much food and other resources the land can provide. In countries where
people live primarily by means of simple farming, gardening, herding, hunting, and
gathering, even large areas of land can support only small numbers of people
because these labor-intensive subsistence activities produce only small amounts
of food.
GLOBAL
DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES
Many experts agree that the legacy of colonialism accounts
for much of the unequal distribution of resources in the world economy. In many
developing countries, the problems of poverty are massive and pervasive. In
recent decades most of these countries have tried to develop their economies
with industry and technology with varying levels of success. Some nations have
become fairly wealthy, including the Republic of Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, South Korea, and Thailand. Many developing countries, however, lack
essential raw materials and the knowledge and skills gained through formal
education and training. They also often lack the infrastructure provided by,
for example, transportation systems and power-generating facilities. Because
these things are necessary for the development of industry, developing countries
generally must rely on trade with developed countries for manufactured goods,
but they cannot afford much.
HIGH
STANDARDS OF LIVING AND COSTS OF LIVING
Because people in developed nations may have more
wealth and resources than those in developing countries, their standard of
living is also generally higher. Thus, people who have what would be considered
adequate wealth and resources in developing countries may be considered poor in
developed countries. People in the United States, for example, may expect to
make, on average, about $30,000 each year. They also probably expect to rent an
apartment or own a house with electricity and running water, to be able to
afford to eat and dress well, and to receive quality health care. In addition,
many people aspire to afford discretionary expenses—that is, purchases
unessential to survival, such as cars, higher-priced foods, and entertainment.
In contrast, people in developing countries may
consider themselves to be doing well if they have productive gardens, some
livestock, and a house of thatch or mud-brick. In rural areas, people may be
accustomed to not having plumbing, electricity, or formal health care. By the
standards of developed countries, such living conditions are considered
hallmarks of poverty.
INADEQUATE
EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT
Illiteracy and lack of education are common in poor
countries. Governments of developing countries often cannot afford to provide
for good public schools, especially in rural areas. Whereas virtually all
children in industrialized countries have access to an education, only about 60
percent of children in sub-Saharan Africa even attend elementary school.
Without education, most people cannot find income-generating work. Poor people
also often forego schooling in order to concentrate on making a minimal living.
In addition, developing countries tend to have few employment opportunities,
especially for women. As a result, people may see little reason to go to
school.
ENVIRONMENTAL
DEGRADATION
In many parts of the world, environmental
degradation—the deterioration of the natural environment, including the
atmosphere, bodies of water, soil, and forests—is an important cause of
poverty. Environmental problems have led to shortages of food, clean water,
materials for shelter, and other essential resources. As forests, land, air,
and water are degraded, people who live directly off these natural resources
suffer most from the effects. People in developed countries, on the other hand,
have technologies and conveniences such as air and water filters, refined
fuels, and industrially produced and stored foods to buffer themselves from the
effects of environmental degradation.
ECONOMIC
AND DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
Changes in labour markets in developed countries have contributed
to increased poverty levels. For instance, the number of relatively high-paying
manufacturing jobs has declined, while the demand for workers in service- and
technology-related industries has increased. Historically, people have learned
the skills required for jobs that involve manual labour, such as those in
manufacturing, either on the job or through easily accessible school vocational
programs. As these jobs are replaced by service- and technology-related
jobs—jobs that usually require skills taught at the college level—people who
cannot afford a college education find it increasingly difficult to obtain
well-paying work.
INDIVIDUAL
RESPONSIBILITY AND WELFARE DEPENDENCY
There are differing beliefs about individual
responsibility for poverty. Some people believe that poverty is a symptom of
societal structure and that some proportion of any society inevitably will be
poor. Others feel that poverty results from a failure of social institutions,
such as the labour market and schools. These people feel that poverty is beyond
the control of those who experience it, but might be remedied if appropriate
policies were enacted. Other people feel that the poor intentionally behave in
ways that cause or perpetuate their poverty. For instance, if people
voluntarily choose to use drugs and this leads them to poverty, it can be
argued that they are to blame for their situation. However, such an argument
cannot completely explain cases in which poverty leads to drug dependence.
EFFECTS
OF POVERTY
Poverty has wide-ranging and often devastating effects.
Many of its effects, such as poor nutrition and physical health problems,
result directly from having too little income or too few resources. As a result
of poor nutrition and health problems, infant mortality rates among the poor are
higher than average, and life expectancies are lower than average. Other
effects of poverty may include infectious disease, mental illness, and drug
dependence. Some effects of poverty are not as easily understood. For example,
studies link poverty to crime, but by no means are all poor people also
criminals. In many cases, the primary effects of poverty lead to other
problems. Extended hunger and lack of employment, for instance, may lead to
depression, which may sometimes contribute to criminal behaviour.
The relationship between poverty and personal or social
problems is very complex. For example, studies of mothers on welfare reveal
that those with multiple problems—such as depression, substance abuse, and
being a victim of domestic violence—are much less likely to find work and
escape poverty. What is less clear, however, is whether these problems result
from the disadvantages of poverty.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM OF POVERTY
The following are my
submission on the possible solutions to the problem of poverty:
1.
THE NEED FOR STRONG
INSTITUTIONS AND GOOD GOVERNANCE:
Corruption has been identified among the
common causes of poverty in Africa. There is a high amount of corruption in
both the private and public sectors of the African society. Most of the times,
the institutions that are supposed to check, report and punish corruption are
themselves corrupted or rendered ineffective. The high levels of corruption in
the public sector drain much of the resources of the state to a few public
officers and politicians rendering many poor people poorer. Corruption also
persists when state officials misappropriate state resources and use them for
purposes which do not benefit the people. According to Transparency
International, of the ten countries considered most corrupt in the world, six
are in sub-Saharan Africa. It is estimated that corruption cost the African
continent roughly $150 billion a year. For the fight against poverty to make a
head way, corrupt practices must be eliminated from the social system and all
perpetrators of corrupt practices brought to book to face the full wrath of the
law.
2.
THE NEED FOR BUILDING OF
INFRASTRUCTURE, SOUND ECONOMIC POLICIES AND REGIONAL INTEGRATION:
African countries have a large deficit in
their infrastructure. The unavailability of some basic infrastructure
inextricably makes people impoverished and slows down the economic development
path. Economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated by the World Bank to
be 2% lower than it could be because of the infrastructure deficit17. According
to the World Bank, the main area in infrastructure where Africa is challenged
includes health, transport, telecommunication and power. In modern times,
Africa is still struggling with diseases like malaria, fever and cholera
largely due to poor health conditions and facilities. These illness and disease
cause many people in Africa to become unproductive and this subsequently leads
to the loss of money for the state and the impoverishment of the affected
people. Inadequate transport infrastructure such as roads, railways, bridges,
and factories causes a lot of agricultural produce in African countries go
waste leading to loss of income for farmers. There is the need for
infrastructural development, sound economic policies and regional integration
for the good of mankind.
3.
THE NEED FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
OF INTRACTABLE CONFLICTS:
The emergence of wars and conflict as
identified earlier is another major way through which many people are driven in
poverty. Conflicts have so many interrelated issues like outbreak of diseases,
loss of capital, and loss of property among others which make the living
conditions of the people domiciled in the affected area very difficult. Africa
has been judged to be "the most warring region on the planet". Conflicts
in Africa are mostly ethnic in nature and more often internal than external. These
intractable conflicts must be managed in order to contain the problem of
poverty.
4.
THE NEED FOR PROMOTING
LABOUR-INTENSIVE INFRASTRUCTURE AND INVESTMENT:
It is
important to stress that the labour-intensive approach to public investments
creates a large number of jobs, often for the most marginalized population
groups, and thus fights against poverty and social exclusion.
5. THE NEED FOR BASIC EDUCATION, LITERACY AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
Low
levels of literacy, education and skills are major obstacles preventing
individuals from finding a job and thus having an income. Skills development –
carefully planned and implemented in the context of employment and
income-generation opportunities – is critical for poverty alleviation.
It is important to have education for
productive employment. Life skills education should go hand in hand with
entrepreneurship skills education
6. THE NEED FOR JOB CREATION, SECURITY AND EMPOWERMENT THROUGH MICROFINANCE:
In order to solve these difficulties of
poverty as a social problem, the organization of the microfinance sector should
be improved, and its scope should be extended to include principal towns and
some villages.
7. THE NEED FOR PROMOTING ENTREPRENEURSHIP, SMALL AND MICRO-ENTERPRISES:
This
approach aims to promote entrepreneurship as a means of employment creation.
People receive assistance – in the form of training, access to credit and/or
equipment, and a broad range of business support services – to help them set up
their own business. Government and other well-meaning individuals and
institutions must think along this line to kick poverty out of the society.
CONCLUSION
Poverty can only be fought in the
presence of strong institutions, and equitable distribution of resources. This
requires a non-corrupt government. However, in Africa, programmes designed to
fight poverty are not fully implemented because the funds end up in the hands
of corrupt individuals, who pocket the majority. Again due to poor governance,
those in authority have failed to apprehend the corrupt. This creates an
imbalance in society and leads to more poverty because you end up with a few
influential and powerful individuals oppressing the poor (who are the
majority).
Poverty as a social
problem is not only limited to Africa. It is a situation which cannot be
eradicated with some simple solutions. There must be a dedicated long term plan
and strong commitment to alleviate poverty in the African region. Africa should
show the need to expedite implementation of sound proposals through greater
commitment, speed and effectiveness in translating the good intentions into
concrete and results-oriented actions on the continent.
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