Tools And Methods Lecture Materials

Posted by Michael, Michael Ntia
(NSASA Information Commissioner)

CHAPTER 1
SOCIAL RESEARCH

Meaning and definition
Society is an organized group of persons associated together with shared objective, norms and values pertain to the society. People have social life and social process.

Research is systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution. It contributes to the general body of knowledge. It also corrects human knowledge.
Social research now can be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalization, principles or
theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events  in  society.  It  attempts  to  answer  or  solve  social problems.
According to C.A. Moser : “Social research is a systematized investigation  to  gain  new  knowledge  about  social phenomenon and problems.”

According to P.V. Young: “Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical methods, aim to discover new facts or old facts and to analyze their sequences, interrelationships, casual explanations and natural laws which govern them.”

Characteristics of social research
•  It  is  directed  towards  the  solution  of  problems.  The ultimate goal is to discover cause-and-effect relationship between social problems.
•   It  emphasis   the    development   of   generalizations, principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
•  It is based  upon  observable  experience  or  empirical evidence.
•  It demands   accurate   observations   and   description.
Researchers may choose from a variety or non- qualitative description of their observations.
•  It involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existence data for new purpose.
•  Although  social  research  activities  may  at  time  be somewhat random and unsystematic, it  is  more often characterized    by   carefully  designed   procedure  that applies rigorous analysis.
•   It  requires  expertise.  The  researcher  knows  what  is already known about the problem and how others have investigated.
•   It  strives to  the  objective and logical  applying every possible test to validate the procedure employed, data collected and conclusion reached.
•  It involves the guests for answer to unsolved problems.
•  It  is  characterized  by  patient  and  unhurried  activity.
Researcher must expect disappointment and discouragement as they pursue the answer to difficult question.
•   It  is  carefully  recorded and  reported. Each  important term    is   defined,   limiting   factors   are   recognized, procedures    are   described   in   detail,   reference   are carefully documented, results are objectively recorded and conclusions are presented with scholarly caution and restraint.
•  It is interdisciplinary in nature
•  It sometimes requires courage.

Objectives of social research

• To facilitate the understanding of human behavior.
• To acquire knowledge about social phenomena, events, issue, problems etc
• To identify functional relationship existing in the social phenomena
• To find out the natural laws that regulates or directs social phenomena.
• To standardize the society concept, e.g. culture, struggle, generation gap, social distance etc.
• To formulate solution to social problems
• To maintain social organization, remove social tension, misconception, etc
• To develop social revival plan.

Phases of social research (S.R.)
Phases of social research consist of a series of steps necessary to  efficiently  carry  out  research on  any  social  phenomena. These actions  are  closely related.  They  can  be  overlapped.

Phases of S.R. basically refer to scientific research process. There are nine phases of social research.
Sensing or realizing problem: -

1. The first step in SR process is observing the situationand sensing problem. New problems keep on emerging in the social environment. One should sense these development origins in the environment. At this stage, one may not know exactly what is happening but one can definitely sense that things are not going smoothly as they should be.
2. Problem identification: Once one become aware of what is happening in the environment, he/she would then focus on the problem. The researcher singles out the problem for the study, i.e. what exactly are the problems in the situation. It is thus, problem-defining stage. Without a focused definition of problem, data tends to be irrelevant, expensive and confusing. Research problem should be specific.
3. Theoretical framework: Once the problem is identified, the researcher carefully studies the earlier studies, if any which are similar to the study in hand. It helps to integrate information locally so that reason for the problem can be conceptualized. This helps    to   develop  theoretical   framework.  This  step essentially  involves  a  review  of  related  literature.  It familiarizes the researcher with what is already known and what is still unknown and untested.
4. Hypothesis formulation: After developing theoretical framework, the researcher develops hypothesis. It  is  drawn from the  theoretical framework.  A  hypothesis  is  a  tentative  answer  to question. It is an educated guess. It is generally based upon prior research. It is subjected to the process of verification  or  disconfirmation.  Hypothesis  is conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of testable statements.
5. Research design: It is the plan, structure and strategy for conducting research. It describes the general framework for collecting,  analyzing and  evaluating  data.  It  helps  to obtain answer to research questions and to control variance. It enables the researcher to answer research questions   to   validity,   objectively,   accurately   and economically as  possible. Design should be  carefully worked out to yield dependable and valid answer to the research questions.
6. Collection of data: At this stage, the researcher has to collect data as expected. Data can be obtained from primary source or secondary source. Questionnaire, interview, observation are major instruments to collect data. This step is also called fieldwork because researcher has to visit field for administering the research instruments to collect  data.
7. Data analysis: It is statistical analysis that has been collected, edited, coded and tabulated. In other words, data analysis means the  categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing of data to obtain answer to research’s question. Its purpose is to reduce data to intelligible and interpretable form so that elations of research problem can be studied and tested. Different statistical techniques are used at this stage.
8. Interpretation and generalization: Interpretation takes the result of data analysis, makes inference pertinent to the research relation studied and draws conclusion about the relations. Generalization is the act of giving general form to these conclusions.
9. Report preparation: Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of his/her research. Its objective  is  to tell  readers the  problems investigated, the method used to solve problems, result of the investigation and the conclusion from the result.

Types of Social Research

Basic research:
It is also called fundamental research. It is undertaken to
improve our understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in social setting and how to solve them. It   undertaken  for   sole   purpose  of   adding  to   our knowledge that is fundamental and generalizable. This type  of  research may  have  no  immediate  or  planned application. But it may later used in further research of an applied nature. Its objective is therefore, is not apply the findings to solve immediate problems at hand, rather to understand more about certain phenomena or problem that occur in social life or settings, and how they can be solved. It contributes to theory formation. This research work of professors, scholars and other researchers devoted to generate new knowledge in particular area of their interest can be called fundamental research. Basic research is  essentially  positive.  It  explains the phenomena as they are and as not they should be. It may verify or establish new one. It is an intellectual exercise.

Applied research:
It is also called action or decisional research. It is undertaken in response to a social problem, which requires  a  solution.  Its  major  purpose  is  to  answer practical and useful question. The results are practically applied to solve immediate     problems. It involves normative prescription. As applied research id concerned with knowledge that has immediate application. It is also called decisional research.

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Fourth NinjaEssays International Writing Contest

Posted by Michael, Michael Ntia
(NSASA Information Commissioner)


The team at NinjaEssays is thrilled with the feedback they got on the previous essay writing contests. They discovered some real talents among the participants, and they want to see more from you! If you are talented in essay writing, you are welcomed to enter their Fourth contest, with topics that are more exciting than ever!


TOPICS
Please provide an entry on one of the following topics:
Nationalism in Contemporary American Literature
Is Homeschooling Inferior or Superior to Traditional Learning?
Digital Language: The Effects of the Internet on Modern Literature
College Dorms: An Inspiration or an Obstacle for Students’ Progress?
Are Parents Supposed to Provide Financial Support to College Students?4
Is ‘Street Wisdom’ Necessary for Professional Success?
African Writers: Diamonds of Contemporary Literature
The Effects of Television Violence on Young Students
Higher Education: a Privilege or a Right?

ORGANIZER
NinjaEssays

NinjaEssays International Writing Contest

PRIZES
Winner – $500
2nd place – $300
3rd place – $150

DEADLINE
December 10, 2015

GUILDLINES
The finalists will receive a notification via e-mail by December 15, 2015.
You have more than enough time to get inspired and write an essay on the topic you are most inspired for!
Only one entry per candidate is allowed.
There is NO ENTRY FEE!
The submitted essays will be evaluated by the top writers from NinjaEssays.com. The personal information of the entrants will not be disclosed to the judges.
Your entry should be 800-1000 words long!
Your contact information should be provided on a separate page.
Please submit the essay in one of the following file types: Word (.doc, .rtf, .odt, and .docx). You should feel free to use images if you hold the rights for their distribution.
All entries must be free of plagiarism! You are not allowed to submit content that has been published before. The content will be checked with an advanced plagiarism checker and the candidates who don’t submit 100% unique work will be disqualified.

The essays must be written in English.
Choose one of the provided topics and submit your entry by sending an e-mail message to contact@ninjaessays.com. Entitle the message “Essay Writing Contest” and provide your name, age, and country in the body of the e-mail message.

INQUIRIES
Have a question? Shoot it to contact@ninjaessays.com

UNIUYO Gets New Vice Chancellor

The University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, has announced the appointment of Prof. Enefiok Essien as the new Vice Chancellor of the institution.

Essien, 55, is a professor of Commercial Law and a two-term dean, Faculty of Law of the university.

He is also the Chairman, Committee of Deans of the university.

A statement on Monday added that the new VC had been a member of the Governing Council, Senate and the management committee.

The statement by the Registrar and Secretary to Council, Mrs. Edak Umondak, stated that Essien was taking over from Prof. Comfort Ekpo, who is completing her five-year tenure as the VC of the university at the end of November, 2015.

The statement added, “The Governing Council of the University of Uyo, at its special meeting held on Friday, October 26, 2015, approved the appointment of a new Vice Chancellor for the University of Uyo. He is Professor Enefiok Essien Of the Faculty of Law of the university.

“He has also served as chairman or member of committees, panels and boards in the university. He has been editor or in the editorial board of the law journals; external examiner/assessor in.most law faculties in Nigerian universities.”

Upon numerous publications, awards and prizes he had won, Essien obtained bachelor of laws, Second Class Upper from the University of Calabar in 1984; Barrister-at-Law (BL) and solicitor from the Nigerian Law School (1985).

Other qualifications are LLM from the University of Lagos (1988) and Ph.D from the University of Birmingham, England in 1998.

He has a Diploma in Journalism from the School of Journalism and Television, Berkshire, England in 1978.

The statement added that Essien began his career in the university as assistant lecturer in 1986 and rose to the position of Lecturer One in 1990 in the erstwhile Cross River State University.

Essien was said to have continued in the University of Uyo where he was promoted Senior Lecturer (1992), Associate Professor (1998) and Professor of Law (2001).

Language Situation in Nigeria

Written by Aniefiok Jacob

INTRODUCTION

Language is a human social phenomenon utilized by people in their everyday life. People often wrongly perceive the term in an abstract way. However, on the contrary, much of our understanding of reality is dependent on language. Language determines our models of the world and the way in which we represent the world. It is in view of this reality of language that Victoria, et al [2007:407], quoting whitman, warns that “language is not an abstract contraction of the learned, or of dictionary makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, tress, joys, affections, and tastes of long generations of humanity”. This phenomenon undoubtedly permeates every aspect of man’s life.

The qualities of language, as highlighted above, aptly apply to the English language. It is now universally accepted that English is a world language. The language is used in all corners of the globe. Multi-ethnically, like language is a term very much associated with the modern society. It is nowadays a part of the much used vocabulary of the people. Multi-ethnicity, as a factor, has generated several social, political, economic and linguistic issues that affect the life of the people all over the world. In Nigeria the diverse ethnic backgrounds of the people is the source of much confusion.

The paper focuses fully on language impasse in Nigeria and also language as a tool for cultural domination and essential tool for unity.

LANGUAGE SITUATION IN NIGERIA

The amalgamation of the northern and southern protectorates of Nigeria in 1914 by the British colonial administrators lumped together people of diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic backgrounds into what has now become the Federal Republic of Nigeria. With over four hundred mutually unintelligible linguistic groupings [according to Ayo Bamgbose]. Nigeria epitomizes a Babelic Scenario. In most cases, linguistic groupings correspond to ethnic groupings making Nigeria about the most ethnically diverse country in Africa.

Given the problems often associated with ethnic diversity, it is not surprising that adopting an indigenous Nigerian language as lingua franca became a major preoccupation among Nigerian linguists, language planners and the government in the 1970s and 80s. Since linguistic homogeneity often entails nationalism, an indigenous national language was seen as one way of ensuring the continued oneness, or national integration, of the many ethnic groupings that make up the country. Many believed differences between indigenous languages keep the people apart, perpetuate ethnic hostilities, weaken national loyalties and increase the danger of separatist sentiments. This is because each local language is intimately related to or equates an ethnic group, thus the use of a local language reinforces attachment to ethnicity thereby going against the current of national sentiment. But the adoption of a national language for Nigeria, and indeed any multilingual society, is a volatile issue. Several proposals were considered for Nigeria. The most widely debated is the adoption of one of the three major languages [Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba] as the national language. The problem of course, became determining the criteria for adopting one over the others. One incontrovertible criterion for this choice would be language dominance. But as Myers Scotten noted one of the reasons for official language dilemma in Africa is that there is usually no single group with both enough numerical and political dominance over the others to make its language the natural choice. This is exactly the case in Nigeria.

To create an artificial Nigeria language for Nigerian was also another alternative. Wazobia a concatenation of Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo was an excellent idea and a lot of fuse was made about it in the media. But in reality, Wazobia faces a lot of insurmountable problems. First, it was far from being developed and the linguist who could work towards the development were too cynrea to bond their effort towards this goal. Second, its further marginalizes the minorities. If a hybrid language is to adopt it might as well incorporate most of the existing languages. This was not practicable. Third, a language requires a zealous population to propagate it and Wazobia had none. Not perhaps the greatest impediment to the growth of Wazobia was the fact that it was not an emergency and Nigerians had a choice, English language of the colonial master. Thus Wazobia stood no chance.

Apart from the three major languages, another candidate for national language status is the Nigerian Pidgin English [NPE]. Not only is it considered a language of solidarity, it is considered a neutral language. Ayo Bamgbose, however, points out the major drawbacks of Nigerian Pidgin English. First, its language development status is almost non-existent since there are neither serious works nor a standard orthography. Second, just like Wazobia, there is no more large population to back it up. Even though it is the unofficial language of the armed forces and the police and is popular in costal areas and urban centres. It is virtually unknown in large areas of the country. Third, it is likely to be unacceptable to the majority of the people who argue that English might as well be retained rather than replacing it with an English-based pidgin, much like going from the frying pan into the fire. It is then this difficulty in choosing an indigenous language as the official v that has resulted in the continued existence of English as the official language of education and administration in Nigeria long after the colonial circumstances that gave rise to it has been dismantled. English is considered to be acceptable as an official language by many because of its neutrality. Therefore, most people would rather say let the sleeping giant lie.

In addition to its neutrality, the social and political elite who were generally highly educated in the colonial language have a major stake in its propagation since its continued use allows them a major share of lucrative jobs and advances their social position and power. The same can be said of the developed nations, especially the ex-colonial masters since the continued use of the colonial language provides a good market for their product.     

LANGUAGE: TOOL OF CULTURAL DOMINATION OR ESSENTIAL TOOL FOR UNITY

Nigeria has a hierarchy of official languages. English is the national language and is used for government business all over the federation. A number of important regional languages such as Hausa and Yoruba are widely used in specific areas and a third hierarchy of languages are those officially designated for further redevelopment, the number of languages adopted for media broadcast and orthography development is significantly larger. Despite this, Nigeria has no language policy that is encapsulated in a single body law. Instead any policy must be extracted from national policy on education, cultural policy for Nigeria e.t.c. constitutions of the Federal republic of Nigerian.

The relevant sections of the constitution relating to language and culture are as follows: ‘section is when says government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy, 21, the state shall; a) protect, preserve and promote the Nigerian cultures which enhances human dignity and are consistent with the fundamental objectives, b) encourages development of technological and scientific studies which enhance cultural values, 55, the national business of the National Assembly shall be conducted in English, and in Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba when adequate arrangements have been made therefore’. It will be evident at one that these are of surpassing generally, that they do not commit the state to any concrete policies or actions. Although the government will strive to eliminate illiteracy, it does not clarity in which language the child should be made literate. No specific provision deals with minority language, and to date no consistent policy in this area has even been outlined.

The consequences has been the English has become the defacto language of communication, the language of broadcast media, schooling and increasingly the language of urban residents who have lost their maternal tongue, often as a consequence of marriages between individuals from different ethnic groups. An interesting consequence of this is Nigerian English itself has developed quite distinctive forms, both in terms of the spoken language. Whether this is desirable or it is highly controversial. It is obviously desirable to have language of national communication and a single language of government.

WEBER'S PROTESTANT ETHIC AND SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM

Written by Michael, Michael Ntia

INTRODUCTION
Weber examines the economics relevance of a specific religious ethic.  Though he speaks of a correlation at times, and of a casual influence elsewhere he states clearly that he is treating “Only one side of casual chain” i.e. the impact of religious values of economic conduct.   Weber is aware of the limited purpose of his efforts and states that he hopes “to clarify the part which religious forces have played in forming the developing web of our specifically modern world culture in the complex interaction of innumerable different historical factors.”

Weber is not arguing that capitalism was caused by the rise of Protestantism.  He attempts something much more complex.  He outlines when he called the elective affinity between Protestantism and certain elements in the culture of capitalism.   According to Weber, ascetic Protestantism had contributed something to the overall development of the modern economic system.  Though it is difficult to evaluate in quantitative forms, it is necessary to examine Weber’s thesis.

THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM:

Weber defined capitalism as a modern phenomenon, very complex system of institutions highly rational in character, and the product   of   a   number   of   developments   peculiar   to   western civilization.  In Weber’s terms capitalism was unique in two ways. One is the sense that had not appeared before in the history of the west and second, it never emerged spontaneously in the East. Weber emphasis that elements of rationalization were peculiar to Europe rational, permanent enterprise, rational accounting, rational law complementary to there were the rational spirit and a rational economic, ethic, which were responsible for the development of modern capitalism. It was the development of goal oriented (Zweckration behavioural that Weber was interested in Rationalization was the Keynote of what Weber called as the “Spirit of Capitalism”.

Weber further explains what the spirits of capitalism is.  It is not simply agreed for wealth.  Many traditional societies exhibited this.  This distinctive trait of the spirit of capitalism is not the pursuit of personal gain, but „the disciplined obligation of work as a duty.   It consists of a unique combination of devotion to the accumulation of wealth and the denial of its use for personal enjoyment for Weber there was an affinity between the spirit of capitalism and early Protestant belief.  Weber explores the source of the rational spirit and ethic of Protestantism and the treats ethics as a necessary complementary factor.

THE PROTESTANT ETHIC:

In this study, Weber brings out the important differences between the Protestants and the Catholics. According to Weber Protestants were more inclined to pursue technical, industrial and commercial studies and occupation and to engage in capitalistic enterprises.  Catholics seemed to prefer more traditional humanistic studies.   Among workers, Catholics preferred more traditional occupations like crafts.   Protestants acquired industrial skills and acquired administrative positions.

Weber   explain   these   difference   in   terms   of   religious education and values which the two groups received in their homes and communities Weber points out to the smaller representation of Catholics in “modern business life”.   While Protestants from the upper or lower strata whether in majority or minority have shown a special tendency to develop economic rationalism.  Weber explains that the principles difference is “in the permanent intrinsic character of their religious beliefs and not only in the irreligious beliefs but in their temporary external historic political situation.”

Weber explains these differences on the basis of other worliness of Catholicism and an indifference to matter of this world. Protestantism in contrast is secular, materialistic and of this world Weber looking for the origin, materialistic and of this world.  Weber looking for the origin, materialistic and of this world „Weber looking for the origin of this spirit traces it to the Protestant doctrine of all Protestant groups shared this ascetic way of life that stimulated capitalistic development.  This ethic was seen in the various sects of the Protestants especially among the Calvinists Weber believed that among the Protestant a new concept had emerge the concept of “calling”.  It referred to the morally dutifufillment of task assigned by God.   According to Calvinism everyone ultimate fate was predestined by God.   Therefore, good works were unless for the attainment of salvation but they were necessary as a possible sign of „election‟.   For the Calvinists the doctrine of „predestination‟ seemed to make Salvation a hopeless matter.  They had no way of knowing it.  They were among God’s elect.  To avoid the despair of hopelessness they had to lead pure and fruitful lives. If an individual prospered in his work, it was a sign of God’s grace. Hard work served to allay the anxiety of the fear of damnation. Hard work the morally dutiful pursuit of a calling the belief that God helps those who help themselves and the absolute avoidance of anything that would detract one from the ascetic way of life was considered by Weber to be a part of Protestant ethic.

According to Weber, Calvinism insisted on the methodical and systematic pursuit of a calling, everyday for everyone viewed thus he protest and ethic, because of the concept of calling and doctrine of predestination urged its adherents to work hard methodically hard work was a possible sign of one’s selection.   It also looked upon the pursuit of wealth as an end in itself.  At the same   time   Protestant   ethic   was   against   “the   spontaneous enjoyment of life.”   This permitted the accumulation of wealth so necessary for capitalist development.

THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM

Weber wrote ‘The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism’ between 1903 and 1904, and  published  it  as  two  separate  essays  in  1905  and  1906.  Since its publication, The Protestant Ethic has been a controversial work that has been subject to harsh criticism by many writers for its central assertion that the ascetic regulation of economic life coupled with restraint, prudent saving and s stringent attitude toward work was religiously induced. Critical objections began to emerge from historians and theologians who claimed that Weber’s argument had central weaknesses. Even today, criticism of Weber’s study continues to generate controversy.

Weber located a positive relationship between the Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. Western capitalism, according to Weber, assumed its shape because it was supported by a certain belief system, namely, the “the Protestant ethic”. Weber argued that the Protestant ethic is associated with the spirit of capitalism. In order to bring out this interrelationship, Weber constructed ideal types of both, the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.

The commercial activities of many of the Western European countries intensified along with a simultaneous popularity of Protestantism in these societies. The capitalism of those times were identified by two contradictory activities of amassing wealth beyond the personal uses of individuals and avoidance of use of these wealth for the purpose of personal pleasure and enjoyment. Thus, Weber noticed capitalism is not only the production and exchange, money making and profit, but an ascetic attitude towards life.

THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM

The desire to earn wealth or profit is as old as human history. Wealth is regarded as a symbol of power, property and prestige. However, this desire to earn wealth got an organized form in modern or rational capitalism. Weber wanted to study this rational capitalism. Weber makes a distinction between traditional capitalism and rational capitalism. Traditional capitalism was particularly noticeable in the Italian cities. Traditional capitalism was a risky business, involving the import of luxury items from distant places. Foreign silks, spices, ivory etc. were sold to buyers at exorbitant prices. The aim was to extract maximum profit. Rational capitalism on the other hand depends on mass production and distribution of goods. Industrial revolution and factory production made this possible. Rational capitalism does not deal with a few luxury items but with almost all the daily material requirements. Rational capitalism is constantly expanding and looking for new methods, new inventions, new products and new customers. Involving methodical work and regularized transactions, it is thus qualitatively and quantitatively different from traditional capitalism.

According to Weber, capitalists earn wealth not for enjoyment of life but for earning more capital. The thirst for money making for its own sake is the very essence of modern capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system which aims at the unlimited accumulation of profit through the rational organization of production. Capitalism arose in the Western countries like England and Germany, which experienced what we call the “Industrial Revolution”. The growth of the factory system, new techniques of production, new tools and machines made it possible for the capitalists or the owners to earn vast amounts of money. Efficiency and discipline are the pillars of capitalism.  The worker was a means to an end, the end being profit. The attitude towards work was that it should be done well not because one had to do it, but because it carried an intrinsic reward.

Weber contrasted this work ethic with another type which he termed as traditionalism. Here, workers prefer less work to more pay, relaxation to exertion. They are either unable to or unwilling to take up new work methods and techniques. In capitalism, the worker is regarded by the capitalist as a means to an end. But under traditionalism, the worker employer relationship is informal, direct and personal. Traditionalism hampers the growth of capitalism. Capitalism stresses on individualism, innovation and relentless pursuit of profit where as traditionalism is characterized by a much less disciplined and efficient system of production.

FEATURES OF THE PROTESTANT ETHIC INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM

Protestantism, as the name suggests, is a religion of the protest. It arose in the sixteenth century Europe during the reformation period. Its founding fathers like Martin Luther and John Calvin broke away from the Catholic Church. They felt that the Church had become too immersed in doctrines and rituals.  It had lost touch with the common people.  Greed, corruption and vice had gripped the Church. Priests had a life-style more suitable for princes. The Protestants tried to recapture the lost spirit of the Church. They stressed simplicity, austerity and devotion. Calvinism, founded by John Calvin, was one such sect. The followers of Calvin in Europe were known as puritans.  They migrated to the continent of North America and were the founders of the American nation. Weber observed that in the West, it was by and large the Protestants who had made great progress in education and employment. They were the top bureaucrats, the most skilled technical workers and the leading industrialists. Weber was very much interested to study Calvinism. By examining its features we can see the linkage between religion and economy.

FEATURES OF CALVINISM

·         Calvin’s image of god- God, said Calvin, was all powerful, transcendent. His divine will was unknowable. It would be foolish of any human being to try to understand God’s will. It could not be understood simply because it was God’s will.

·         Doctrine of predestination- Calvinism believes that certain persons are chosen or ‘elected’ by God to enter heaven while the rest are dumped. The chosen will reach heaven no matter what ever they do on Earth.  We cannot bribe God through prayers and sacrifices. As this Will is unknowable, we cannot change it. People can only work for their material prosperity as it would symbolize their election. We would work for the glory of God.

·          “This worldly asceticism”- By ‘asceticism’ we mean strict discipline, control and conquest of desires. In Protestantism, particularly Calvinism Weber detected this-worldly asceticism.  It stressed rigorous self-discipline in order to master the environment.  A simple frugal life-style was recommended along with hard work.  Worldly or sensual pleasures are denounced. Dance and music, film and theatres are thought to deviate the people from working for the glory of God. This emphasis on hard work was not confined to the Calvinists alone. It was a common feature of all Protestant sects. The idea that ‘honesty is the best policy’ was the principle of early capitalism. The fruits of hard labour could not be spent on worldly pleasures. Thus there was only one outlet for money. It was reinvested and hence used to make more money. Calvinists believe that ‘work is worship’ and ‘time is money’.

·         The notion of “calling”- The Calvinist ethic holds that all work is important and sacred. It is not mere work; it is a calling or a mission and should be performed with devotion and sincerity.

Weber summarized the Calvinists ethics in five points-

a.       1. There exists an absolute transcendent God who created the world and rules it, but is incomprehensible and inaccessible to the finite minds of men.

b.      2.  This  all  powerful  and  mysterious  God had  predestined  each  of us  to  salvation  or damnation, so that we cannot by our works alter a divine decree which was made before we were born.

c.      3.  God created the world for his own glory.

d.     4.  Whether he is to be damned or saved, man is obliged to work for the glory of God and to create the Kingdom of God on Earth.

e.       5.  Earthly things, human nature, and flesh belong to the order of sin and death and salvation can come to man only through divine grace.

This helped to create a disciplined and dedicated workforce without which capitalism could not have emerged. Hard-work, saving and re-investment and the desire to prosper have a strong affinity with the “spirit of capitalism”. Working day and night and not enjoying the fruits of that labour might seem very irrational to most of us. But if we keep in mind the “doctrine of predestination” and the need to prosper to prove one’s “election” by God, this irrational behaviour makes sense.

NSASA 2015/2016 EXECUTIVES

S/N	NAME	PORTFOLIO	PHONE NUMBER
1.	Harry, Simon Monday	President	0703 254 3995
2.	James, Ruth John	Vice President	0816 746 0718
3.	Anwana Christopher	Secretary General	0810 356 2671
4.	Mercy, Matthew Sunday	Treasurer	0909 470 1924
5.	Fenson, Ememobong U.	Fin. Secretary	0803 910 8633
6.	Michael, Michael Ntia	Director of Information	0703 529 0614
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8.	Akpan, Ekpono D.	Director of Sports	0706 286 8866
9.	Ben Daniel	Director of Socials	0803 417 1298
10.	Emediong Simon	Director of Welfare	0816 165 8741